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Identification of Standards for Pharmaceutical Care in Benin City.
Erah PO and Nwazuoke JC
Patrick O Erah+ and James C
Nwazuoke
Pharmacotherapy Group, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
Abstract
Purpose: Pharmaceutical care (PC) is still a theoretical statement in Nigeria and not operational. The goal of this study is to identify practice standards that can be effectively applied in the implementation of pharmaceutical care in Nigeria.
Method: The survey instrument (a pre-tested self-administered questionnaire) was distributed to pharmacists in Benin City. Each questionnaire contained the 52 suggested practice standards obtained from round one discussion by the Delphi panel of PC experts. The pharmacists were requested to indicate in the questionnaire whether or not each of the standards was feasible, relevant, being currently applied or intend to be apply it in their practice setting. Analysis of the responses on “being currently applied or intend to apply it” excluded the pharmacists in academia since nearly all of them were full-time University Lecturers.
Result: Of the 150 copies of the questionnaire distributed, 119 (79.3%) responded. The average proportion of pharmacists who gave positive response to each of the standards were as follows: feasibility (71.3% 9.2%), relevance (72.0% 8.0%), currently apply it (18.2% 20.2%) and intend to apply it (10.8% 6.7%). The 95% confidence intervals of the responses were: feasibility (68.7% – 73.9%), relevance (69.7% - 74.4%), currently apply it (12.5% - 23.8%), and intend to apply it (8.9% - 12.6%). Neither the age, years of professional experience, qualification nor area of practice significantly influenced the pharmacists responses. Forty-seven (47) of the 52 standards were identified for application by the pharmacists.
Conclusion: PC standards that can be effectively applied in improving effective pharmaceutical services in Benin City have been identified. The identified 47 standards are most likely to stimulate the widespread implementation of PC in Nigeria if seriously addressed by the Pharmacists Council of Nigeria, the Pharmaceutical Society of Nigeria and Nigeria pharmacists.
Keywords: Benin City, pharmaceutical care, practice standards
+To whom correspondence should be addressed: E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected] or Tel: +234 802 3360318
Evaluation of Community Pharmacists' Involvement in Primary Health Care.
Oparah AC and Arigbe-Osula EM
Department of Clinical Pharmacy & Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Benin, PMB 1154, Benin City, Nigeria
Abstract
Objective: To evaluate the involvement of community pharmacists in primary health care; determine extent of the pharmacists' participation in curative and preventive services, as well as partially assess quality of the involvement.
Methods: A 27-item self-completion questionnaire with 0.92 reliability was administered to 110 community pharmacists in Benin City, Nigeria. Data were collected on a scale that ranged from 27 to 135 with an assumed neutral point of 81 and statistically analysed.
Results: Respondents scored 87.92 31.31, and over half (55%) were above the neutral point. This implies a slightly satisfactory but not significant involvement (p = 0.25447). Mean total rating on curative services was 92.6129.6, p = 0.0759 with 58% above the neutral point. Infectious diseases accounted for majority of the interventions. Involvement in preventive services was very poor. Only 31% scored above the neutral point with a rating of 65.6131.05, p = 0.2377. Quality of involvement was 94.7736.18 which was not significant (p = 0.2866). Majority of the respondents (94%) claimed they would be prepared to participate in further training on primary health care programme.
Conclusion: Community pharmacists are marginally involved in the primary health care programmes in Benin City and are willing to improve on their performance. Continuing education on primary health care and incorporation of primary health care role of community pharmacists in the curriculum of pharmacy schools might be helpful.
Keywords: Benin City, Community pharmacists, primary health care.
+To whom correspondence should be addressed: E-mail: [email protected]
The Quality of Groundwater in Benin City: A baseline study on inorganic chemicals and microbial contaminants of health importance in boreholes and open wells.
Erah PO, Akujieze CN and Oteze
Pharmacotherapy Group, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria. E-mail: [email protected] , Tel: +234 802 336 0318; 2Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
Abstract
Purpose: Inorganic chemicals and microorganisms are common in human environments and at high levels poisoning from the chronic effects have occasionally occurred. The purpose of this study was therefore to investigate whether the levels of inorganic chemicals and microbial contaminants in boreholes and open wells in selected Districts in Benin City are sufficient to affect the health of the inhabitants of the areas under investigation.
Method: Six (6) boreholes and three (3) open wells were randomly selected from two Districts (Okhoro and Teboga) in Benin City. Water samples were collected from the boreholes and open wells using standard techniques. Lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn), and cadmium (Cd) concentrations as well as aerobic bacteria, presumptive faecal coliform, E. coli, faecal Streptococci and fungi in the water samples were determined using standard procedures. World Health Organisation acceptable limits for drinking water were used in the evaluation.
Result: All the boreholes and open wells were contaminated with abnormal levels of Pb. High levels of Cr and Cd were found in the borehole and open wells at Okhoro. Abnormal levels of Zn concentrations were detected in almost all the boreholes and open wells. All the boreholes at Teboga were contaminated with unacceptable levels of aerobic bacteria and fungi. Presumptive faecal colifom, E.coli and faecal Streptococci were seen in all the boreholes.
Conclusion: Some boreholes and open wells in Okhoro and Teboga Districts in Benin City are contaminated with abnormal levels of metals and microorganisms capable of causing health hazards to the consumers of boreholes and open wells.
Keywords: Benin City, boreholes, inorganic chemicals, microorganisms, open wells.
2To whom correspondence should be addressed: E-mail: [email protected]
Evaluation of Dimethylformamide (DMF) as an Organic Modifier in Hydrophobicity Index (Rm) Determination.
Idowu OS, Fasanmade AA and Olaniyi AA
Olakunle S Idowu+, Adedigbo A Fasanmade and Ajibola
A Olaniyi
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy,
University of Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract
Purpose: Ideal behaviour of mixtures of organic modifier and water is reflected by a linear relationship between refractive index and fraction of organic modifier in the mixture. This study was carried out to investigate dimethylformamide (DMF) as an organic modifier in hydrophobicity index (Rm) determination. Method: We quantitatively evaluated the problem of partial miscibility of phases associated with the reversed phase thin layer chromatographic (RPTLC) system, using liquid paraffin as stationary phase and acetone/water mixtures as mobile phase. Ideality of behaviour of acetone /water mixtures was investigated by refractive index measurements. Rm values of compounds were determined using mixtures of acetone and water as mobile phase. Results: DMF/water mixture behaved ideally across the whole concentration range investigated (0-100%) while acetone/water mixture deviated from ideal behaviour when the concentration of acetone in the mixture was 80%. DMF also gave a better extrapolation of Rm value from linear regression of partition data than acetone for bezafibrate used as a test-drug molecule.
Conclusion: DMF is a better organic modifier than acetone in this RPTLC system. These findings could be extended to drug-receptor and drug design studies. The use of dimethylformamide (DMF) in preference to acetone as organic modifier is proposed in this study.
Keywords: Drug design, dimethylformamide, hydrophobicity index, organic modifiers
+To whom correspondence should be addressed: E-mail: [email protected] Tel: + 234 802 309 4981
Studies on the Genotoxic and Mutagenic Potentials of Mefloquine.
Akerele JO and Obaseiki-Ebor EE
Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, University of Benin, PMB 1154, Benin City, Nigeria
Abstract
Purpose: The detection of mefloquine mutagenicity has not been achieved by the use of Salmonella typhimurium his TA1535, TA1537 as tester strains. With the introduction of improved and more sensitive strains, it is of interest to evaluate the current mutagenic and genotoxic status of the drug. This study presents data on the in-vitro mutagenic and genotoxic potentials of mefloquine hydrochloride clinically used as an antimalarial agent.
Method: The mutagenicity potentials was investigated in the Escherichia coli WP2 trp and WP2 uvrA trp tester strains containing the plasmids, pEB017 and pKM101, and the Salmonella typhimurium TA97 containing pKM101. The genotoxicity potential was determined using the microscreen phage-induction assay.
Results: The presence of plasmids pEBO17 and pKM101 enhanced the detection of mutagenicity of mefloquine. Microsomal-activated mefloquine unequivocally elicited base-pair substitution mutagenicity. The genotoxicity test indicated that mefloquine was generally not genotoxic but was of the same potential mutagenicity as chloroquine phosphate.
Conclusion: Melfloquine hydrochloride exhibits base pair substitution mutagenesis, but not potentially genotoxic, even though it showed concentration dependent cytotoxicity. Its use as a last line antimalarial agent should still be encouraged.
Keywords: Base-pair substitution, genotoxicity, mefloquine hydrochloride, mutagenicity, R-plasmid pEB017
+To whom correspondence should be addressed: E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]
Parameters to be Considered in the Simulation of Drug Release from Aspirin Crystals and their Microcapsules
Eichie FE and Okor RS
Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
Abstract
Purpose: Drug microparticles may be microencapsulated with water-insoluble polymers to obtain controlled release, which may be further determined by the particle distribution. The purpose of this study was to determine the drug release parameters needed for the theoretical prediction of the release profiles of single aspirin crystals and their microcapsules.
Method: Four single crystals of aspirin of varied weight and orthorhombic in shape or their microcapsules also of varied weights were randomly selected for the study. The microcapsules were walled with an acrylatemethacrylate copolymer (wall thickness, 11 Īm). The following parameters were evaluated: the order of release, the dissolution rate constant, k (crystals), the diffusion coefficient, D (microcapsules), the maximum release m and time to attain it t. These parameters were in turn used to simulate the release profiles of hypothetical single particles of a wide range size distribution, 0.3 – 1.4 mm at 0.1mm intervals.
Results: The empirical single crystals exhibited an initial zero order (93%; dissolution constant = 4.4 min-1) followed by a first order release (6%; dissolution constant = 0.38 min-1). Maximum release from each of the crystals was 99% of the initial particle weight; thus m was a constant fraction of the initial particle weight. A zero order release consistent with a Fickian diffusion model was displayed by the single microcapsules (diffusion coefficient, 5.4x10-4 mm2min-1). At same particle weight the release parameters m, t, and the slopes of the rate order plots compared favourably with the theoretical data.
Conclusion: The study indicates that the empirical release data on a few single particles can be used to predict the release profiles of single particles of a wide range of size distribution. This finding may be exploited in the prediction of drug release from polydisperse systems.
Keywords: Aspirin crystals, drug release, simulation, microcapsules
+To whom correspondence should be addressed: E-mail: [email protected]
Reclosure Efficiency of Plastic Container Used for Multidose Packaging of Moisture Sensitive Aspirin Tablets.
Ibrahim MA and Inyagi IJ
Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology,University of Jos, P. M.B. 2084, Jos Nigeria
Abstract
This study was conducted to determine the suitability of packaging aspirin tablets in one thousand tablet packs that require reclosure after dispensing each dose. The reclosure efficiency of the push-fit type closure of a plastic container in preventing moisture entry was determined and compared to a control container. Aspirin tablets used in this study were shown to be susceptible to moisture degradation leading to significant losses of potency (p = 0.005). Loose placement of closure on container allowed significant gain of moisture into the container (p = 0.05) and this could lead to significant loss of potency of aspirin tablets. However, if the closure is properly pushed down to fit, the moisture gain is not significant (p = 0.05). It can, therefore, be concluded that the proper use of push-fit closures on containers for packaging aspirin tablets provides effective protection and the use of more expensive single unit strip packaging, for example, is therefore not necessary.
Keywords: Reclosure efficiency, moisture sensitive aspirin tablets, plastic container.
+To whom correspondence should be addressed: E-mail: [email protected] ; Tel: 0803 7016494, 073 612655
An Overview of Pharmaceutical Validation and Process Controls in Drug Development.
Jatto E and Okhamafe AO
Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Benin, PMB 1154, Benin City, 300001, Nigeria
Abstract
It has always been known that the processes involved in pharmaceutical production impact significantly on the quality of the products The processes include raw material and equipment inspections as well as in-process controls. Process controls are mandatory in good manufacturing practice (GMP). The purpose is to monitor the on-line and off-line performance of the manufacturing process, and hence, validate it. Thus validation is an integral part of quality assurance. This overview examines the need for pharmaceutical validation and the various approaches and steps involved as well other pertinent consideration.
Keywords: Drug production, pharmaceutical validation, pharmaceutical process control.
1Present address: Pharmacy Department, National Hospital, Abuja, Nigeria; 2To whom correspondence should be addressed: E-mail: [email protected]